Conditioned Place Preference is a way of finding out what animals want. Researchers train them to associate one place with an experience such as food or a loud noise and [another / other] place with something completely different, usually where nothing [happens / happen]. The two places are made obviously [different / different] to make it as [easy / easily] as possible for the animal to associate each place with [how / what] happened to it there. The animal's preference for being in one place or [another / other] is measured both before and after its [experience / experiences] in the two places. If there is a shift in where the animal chooses to spend its time for the reward, this suggests that it [like / liked] the experience and [is / are] trying to repeat it. Conversely, if it now avoids the place [the stimulus / to the stimulus] appeared and starts to prefer the place it did not experience it, then this suggests that it [find / found] the stimulus unpleasant. For example, mice with cancer show a preference for the place [which / where] they have been [giving / given] morphine, a drug used [relieving / to relieve] pain, rather than where they have received saline whereas healthy mice developed no such preference. This suggests that the mice with cancer [want / wanted] the morphine.
One of the best [pieces / piece] of advice I got when my son was really little was from his nursery school teacher, who told parents [pretending / to pretend][that / what] we liked bugs and worms. The reason: my son's class was doing an earth science unit, and she [have / had] found that almost all kids love to dig and play with the dirt. That is, until, at pickup time, their parents scream, "Ewwwww, worms are gross! "- which often squashes their interest in biology. Kids get [many / many of] their early ideas and prejudices from us. So [how / what] you feel about your own work - and [how / that] you talk about it in front of your kid - affects how she views work in general. If you enjoy your job, [say / says] so. Even if you don't love your job, you can [probable / probably] say that you love having one. It's important to relay the idea [that / which] a job is something to take [pride / pride in].
[Though / Through] there may be no perfect design, we can still speak of good design. We can admire the brilliant solution, [appreciate / appreciates] the ingenious device, and enjoy the clever gadget. Imperfect as they may be, they represent the triumph of the human mind over the world of things, and the achievements of [accomplishing / accomplished] designers uplift the spirit of us all. The pole-vaulter who [sets / set] a new record is no less of a champion because he does not clear the next bar height. He [have / had] conceived and executed his run, the planting of his pole, and the arc of his body in the best way that he could for that meet, and for the time being, at least, his best [is / are] the best. We applaud what he did achieve, with the expectation that someday he or some other athlete may design a better pole or vaulting technique and so set a new record. That is the nature of design.
Instant and early conclusions, solutions, suggestions, and statements about "how we solved that in the past" are the enemies of good problem solving. The good is, most often, the enemy of the better. Defining the problem and taking action occur almost simultaneously for most people. The mentally agile survivor paradoxically puts more energy [into / for] playing with the problem mentally - defining more creatively. Voluminous research on problem [solving / solved] shows conclusively that the more effort one puts into the front end of the problem-solving process, the easier [this / it] is to come up with a good solution. This doesn't mean being inactive. It means being [high / highly] cognitively active in defining the problem more rigorously.
[Many / Many of] the technological innovations with the most profound impact on human society originated in settlements along trade routes, [there / where] a rich mix of different cultures ignited new ideas. For example, the printing press, [it / which][helped spread / helped spreading] knowledge to all social classes, [was / were] invented by the German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440. This invention relied on several innovations from China, including paper and ink. Paper traveled along trade routes from China [for / to] Baghdad, [there / where] technology was [developing / developed] for its mass production. This technology then migrated to Europe, as [did / doing] water-based ink from China, [it / which] was [modifying / modified] by Gutenberg to become oil-based ink. We have the cross-fertilization of diverse cultures to thank for the printing press, and the same can be said for other important inventions.
When you watch a movie first on a large screen in the theater and then on a small video screen, [do / does] you see giants on the large screen and Lilliputians on the small screen? Of course not. As with color constancy, [it / which] makes us [see / seeing] colors as uniform [though / despite] variations, our perception is [guiding / guided] by size constancy, [it / which] means we perceive people and their environments as normal sized regardless of whether they appear in a long shot or a close-up on a large movie screen or a small video screen, or [whether / that] we are relatively close to or far away from the screen. So long as we know by experience how [large / largely] or small an object should be, we perceive it as its normal size regardless of screen size, relative image size, or perceived object distance.
Charles Sanders Peirce , the founder of pragmatism, America's only unique philosophy, [was / were] born in Cambridge, Massachusetts. His father, Benjamin, [was / were] the leading mathematician of the day, and he took a special interest in his son's intellectual development. Under his direction Charles [was / being] reading college-level material, including logic, at age twelve, and Benjamin would challenge the boy with [high / highly] complex problems that Charles would solve on his own. Although his most significant education came from his father, Charles went [on to / to on] attend Harvard University, [there / where] he received a Bachelor of Science in chemistry in 1863. Yet, he was not a successful student , partly because he showed scorn for his professors as inadequately qualified [teaching / to teach] him. This arrogance is likely the main reason Peirce lived a difficult life. He died in poverty at age seventy-four in the then-isolated town of Milford, Pennsylvania.
If 100 people are [interviewed / interviewed about], [say / says], whether they like a particular brand of peanut butter and it is found that 38 do, we are told [what / that] 38 percent of people like that brand. Of course this does not mean [that / what] everyone in the world was asked, but the researcher assumes [if / that if] 38 percent of the sample liked that brand then it is likely to reflect the opinion of people generally. However, [crucial / crucially] to this assumption is the size of the sample. If you asked just two people [that / if] they liked that brand of peanut butter and one did, [what / that] would be weak evidence [that / which] 50 percent of people liked it. You couldn't assume [that / what] the views of two people would match the whole population! Generally the larger the sample the more reliable the survey is likely to [be / do]. If the study doesn't say how many people were involved, [be / being] suspicious.
Take a close look at a computer chip sometime. You'll notice [that / what] it resembles a dense city in miniature, perhaps symbolizing our move toward an ever-more-compact and interactive world. In the same way that microchips are [increased / increasing] in power by providing more communication pathways, we are seeing the power of direct people- to-people communication, and the collapse of traditional bureaucratic hierarchies. This frees us to communicate in [far / very] more, and more profound, ways. For example, a century ago, few people traveled outside their own county. Today, some kids have more friends around the world that they've met via the Internet than they [are / do] in their local neighborhoods and schools. That's because they have grown up with technologies of interactive communication we never imagined.
Research from New York University and Tel Aviv University has shown that you're more inclined [thinking / to think] creatively when you imagine yourself removed from a problem or situation. Imagining yourself in the mind of somebody else, for example, [is / are] a simple way to trick your brain into seeing things in new ways. The act of people watching is one way [doing / to do] just that. As you watch strangers, you can imagine how they might handle a situation. That thought process allows for ideas that would otherwise be unrealistic or [limit / limited] by your personal way of thinking. After all, you might not act a certain way, but a stranger could. Imagining how a stranger might act makes [it / them] possible for you to think of more radical and imaginative ideas than you might be [used / used to], simply because it's not you acting them out, but someone else you're [watched / watching].
For science, technology, engineering, and math classes, empathy has a natural place. It is an integral part of teaching design thinking, [it / which] centers on applying creativity to realize and solve problems. In order to imagine or identify challenges to [be / have] addressed, students have to put themselves [into / for] the lives and circumstances of others. They have to ask themselves, "What is this person feeling?" "What is his situation like, and [how / that] can we make it better for him?" They use their insights from those reflections [for / to] address solution-based thinking. [Through / Though] various processes (brainstorming, inquiry, etc. ), they identify a specific way [what / that] they can solve the problem. They design and test their prototype, still thinking about the ultimate user and making modifications with the user in mind.
Low-productivity firms are often [locating / located] in industries [which / where] the demand is stagnant or falling. This is partly [because / due to] the fact [that / which] new plants do not need to be [building / built] to meet new demands, but it is also [because / due to] a human problem. Dying industries simply cannot be managed as [efficient / efficiently] as growing industries. Growing industries attract bright aggressive managers who [wants / want] to advance rapidly with their companies. In dying industries promotions are few and far between. Smart young managers know [that / what] they should be avoided. Who wants a job [which / where] the basic problem is [deciding / to decide][who / what] to fire each day and [where / that] new, [exciting / excited] investments are not happening? In a dying industry everyone is out to protect what they have rather than [build / to build] something better.
There is an important reason to attract pollinators that has little to do with their pollination services and a lot to do with the fact [that / which] they are part of a food chain. In the natural world everything eats something else in order to survive. Those same insects [that / where] pollinate our flowers can also prey on a range of pest insects and [help keep / help keeping] them under control. They are in turn prey for birds, frogs or lizards. The honeyeaters, for example, [what / that] pollinate our flowers while [feeding / fed] on the nectar within them, also eat insects from under the bark of trees and might themselves become prey for larger birds. Lizards in the mulch eat a range of garden pests and might end up [being / to be] eaten by magpies.
In an ideal world all arguments would be [deciding / decided] on their merits and not their presentation. But we aren't in an ideal world. There's no getting away from the fact [that / which] presentation of an argument is crucial. Advertising is all [basing / based] on persuading you to buy a product that you would not otherwise buy, and most advertising is the triumph of spin over substance. Many people have won arguments, [based / basing] on bad grounds, because they've made their points well. And many people with good points have lost their argument because they failed [making / to make] their case attractively.
To [illustrate / illustrating] both the advantages and disadvantages of an even partly iconographic writing, the Chinese script provides a good example. There is the large number of signs: 3,000 to 4,000 characters for everyday use, 50,000 for scholars [studying / studied] the classical texts . Why then has the Chinese script been so successful, lasting, apart from comparatively few minor remodelings, well over 4,000 years? Simply because as a concept script Chinese does not depend on the [speaking / spoken] language. This made it, throughout Chinese history, an ideal means of communication in an empire [where / whose] people spoke a large number of different dialects yet [was / were] all ruled by the same centre.
There has been a lot of interest in the idea of emotional intelligence. Many people are not in touch with their emotions and [feel / feels][incapable / incapablely] of expressing their feelings. The results everywhere [is / are] obvious and catastrophic. In part, this is the legacy of the academic illusion. Conventional education separates intelligence from feeling, and concentrates only on particular aspects of the first. This is [why / because] being [high / highly][educating / educated][is / being] no guarantee of emotional intelligence. Yet there is an intimate relationship between knowing and feeling: [how / what] we feel is directly [relating / related] to what we know and think. Creativity is not a purely intellectual process. It is [enriching / enriched] by other capacities and in particular by feelings, intuition and by a playful imagination.
The importance of experimental [learning / learned] depends strongly on the nature of the activity: there [is / are] high-risk activities [in them / in which] the agents have to limit their experiments because they could conflict with the "normal performance" that has to be achieved. Airline pilots or surgeons cannot learn in this way. Similarly, people [managing / managed] a marshalling yard or regulating the flow of subway train traffic will avoid any type of experiment in the normal course of their work. The error element of their [professional / professionally] trial-and-error is rarely consequential at least insofar as outcomes can be rapidly [assessing / assessed] and methods [adapting / adapted]. The fact of being able to carry out this type of learning depends on the nature of the risk and the immediacy of the effect. By contrast, a teacher can carry out educational experiments and a craftsman can look [for / after] new solutions to a particular problem [since / during] the production process. Thus, explicitly cognitive learning [consists / is consisted] of a series of [planning / planned] but weakly controlled experiments.
Blocking can [occur / be occurred] in diverse situations. [Engaging / Engaged] in casual conversation, you block on a word in the middle of a sentence. Stage actors fear those relatively rare but [embarrassing / embarrassed] moments in a scene when they block on their lines. And students are afraid of the awful realization that they [are / have] blocked an exam answer they studied [diligent / diligently], and might even recall spontaneously after [finishing / finished] the test. But blocking occurs most often with people's names. In surveys that probe [different / differently] types of memory failures in everyday life, [block / blocking] on the names of familiar people invariably emerges at or near the top of the list. Name blocking is especially troublesome for older adults: the single biggest complaint of cognitive difficulties by adults past age fifty - by far - involves problems [remembering / remembered] the names of familiar people.
A date or time [by them / by which] the goal is to [be / have] accomplished should be specified. The presence or absence of a deadline is a critical attribute of any goal-setting exercise. Deadlines stimulate action, and the closer the deadline, [much more / the more] motivation to act. The absence of a deadline makes the urgency of the goal indefinite and hence less motivating. For example, there [is / are] a disproportionately large number of plays [since / during] the last few minutes of a football game because the team that is behind faces a deadline for scoring more points or losing the game. Similar increases in activity occur toward the end of the trading period each day on the New York Stock Exchange. Think of your own behavior when a test date is rapidly approaching, and you begin to increase your preparation activities.
When you are busy [create / creating] a new habit, there is a pitfall you should [know / know about], [if / because if] you don't, you will fail again and again and again. Let me illustrate it with an example. Suppose you want to learn a new move in tennis. In the beginning, [to / will] you get better or worse results with your new move? You will get worse results of course. So the result curve will [go / go down] and only after a certain amount of time will it become level and then your results may improve beyond your old habit. Okay, Now back to the starting point: the new move, [to / will] it cost more or less energy than the old move? It will cost more of course, [it / which][are / being] a new move. After a while you get used [for / to] it, [it / which] becomes a habit, and it will cost less energy. So now let's look at the area between the downward curve of the results and the upward curve of the energy. Suppose you are at point 'X'. You have been busy with the new habit for a while. The results are getting worse all the time. You have to put more energy [into / for] it [than / than before]. What is your conclusion?